Textile Compendium

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FIBERS
1. Animal Fibers
Wool
1a. Producers of Wool (2004 figures)
A. Commonwealth
1. Australia: 1,153m lbs
2. New Zealand: 481m lbs
3. United Kingdom: 108m lbs
B. Other Countries
1. China: 825m lbs
2. Argentina: 174m lbs
3. South Africa: 101m lbs
4. United States: 46m lbs
1b. Major Types of Wool
A.Sheep
1. Australia/New Zealand:
a. Merino: short crimp, very fine wool, most often produced in Australia;
is not itchy or overly warm, wicks moisture away from body and stores it
in fibers even though dry to the touch; does not retain odor and is
naturally antimicrobial.
b. Corriedale: Merino and Lincoln/Leicestershire breeds bred to create a
hybrid sheep which produced both high-quality mutton, and soft, long
and sharp crimped fiber.
2. England: primarily bred for mutton, although the industry has shrank
considerably in modern times; very many breeds have been bred out or
eliminated in favor of only a few major, heartier breeds.
a. Lincolnshire: also known as Lincoln wool; smooth, silky and strong,
perfect for wefts and outerwear due to its brightness and durability;
often used in wigs or mohair blends due to its luster.
b. Leicestershire: coarser wool, similar to the Lincolnshire and also long
haired; based in Leicestershire, England; very durable and best for
outerwear, suiting or dresses, also suitable for everyday use.
c. Cheviot: originating from Scotland, the fibers are wiry and coarse,
used in cheviot suiting and overcoats in the UK.
3. American: although the US has a high demand for woolen products, its
production of fabric cannot catch up to demand, thus much wool is
imported.
a. American, Domestic: Eastern and Midwestern states; finer than
territory wools
b. American, Territory: mountainous states including Colorado; fine fibers
but smaller, weaker, tender and harsh; high rate of shrinkage,
c. American, Southwestern: Texas, Arizona, New Mexico and Southern
California; typically Rambouillet breed, a type of merino; soft and fine,
high quality.
4. Other
a. Karakul: from Astrakhan, Russia; coarse, black, open curls, quite long
and low luster; typically taken from the youngest sheep as the character
of the curls deteriorates with age.
B. Other
1. Mohair: obtained from the Angora goat; smooth, lustrous, silky in appearance, dust resistant, but also one of the most durable of the wools as it may be stretched to 130% of its original size and spring back to original shape; much of the specialized information on converting the fiber into a high-quality end product is closely guarded; highest producer is South Africa, America is second largest producer.
2. Cashmere: originating from its namesake, the Kashmir goat; noted for its soft hand and light weight, yet high heat retention; Mongolian cashmere is the finest and typically used in sweaters, while Iranian and Afghani cashmere are coarser and used in sport coats and jackets; very high priced as a single animal only produces up to four ounces of fiber a year.
3. Camel Hair: primarily Asian and Middle Eastern in origin; Bactrian species of camel must be plucked for its downing undercoat, as the upper layers are too coarse for apparel, fiber retains high heat retention and has satisfactory drape, typically blended with wool for strength or sometimes also with cheaper fibers, like cotton or polyester, for lower cost; naturally light in color and sometimes mixed with cashmere or mohair for white, luxurious material.
4. Alpaca or Llama: fine, strong and lustrous, but not curly; vicuna is the most luxurious and high priced; originates from South America and is fleeced by hand.
5. Cow Hair: obtained from the slaughtered carcasses of cows in US, Japan, England, Canada and Spain; used for coarse rugs, cushions and felts.
6. Horse Hair: Argentina and Canada; used principally in interlining of men’s suits and coats, and stuffing for furniture.
7. Angora Fur: obtained from the Angora rabbit in the US, England, Netherlands and Belgium; very popular in knitting, often seen in sweaters, frizzy but warm and soft.
8. Rabbit Hair: used for felt hats; highest quality from the white faced breeds in Europe, China and Japan; the cheaper gray furs are found in Australia and New Zealand.
1c. Characteristics of Wool
A. Physical
1. Comfort: due to slow absorption and porous trapping of air, wool is very warm and can protect against sudden drafts; weave, manufacturing and nature of fiber play a great part in the comfort of the finished product.
2. Hand: soft, springy, warm; woolen is noticeably harrier and thus warmer, softer and less firm; worsted is smooth, solid, and less soft, most often seen in suiting.
B. Value
1. Appearance: low luster, possibility for high intensity color or soft and muted; drapes and fits well compared to other fabrics, especially man-made; often has intricate weaves which are attractive.
2. Ease in Care: wrinkle resistant due to elasticity; worsted takes and holds a crease well, especially seen in slacks; slow to soil and absorption resistant so spots can be reached before they stain the fabric; dry cleaning is preferred, although some articles may be washed.
3. Suitability: wide range of use much like cotton; lightweight and sheer fabrics may be worn by the full figured woman; luxurious flannels and broadcloths are appreciated in men’s suiting; often used in modern women’s suiting for the trim and tailored look; it should be noted that worsted wools are more durable, and require less pressing and care then woolens.
C. Care
1. Light: raw wool is less resistant to light than dyed wool; possesses the same or similar resistance to sunlight as cottons and linens.
2. Mildew: only attacked by mildew if left damp for extended period.
3. Acids: dilute acids, even at high temperatures do not injure the fibers, although higher concentrated acids will destroy the fiber if left to dry, or if soaked for a few minutes.
4. Alkalis: although weak alkalis like ammonia, borax, phosphate of soda and soap will not damage wool, they must be kept under 68F, if boiling in lye for five minutes will completely disintegrate the wool; care should be used when cleaning wool, and neutral soaps with no free alkali are advised.
5. Bleach: chlorine bleach is harmful to wool and will cause weakening loss of elasticity; sodium peroxide and hydrogen peroxide may be used to remove some kinds of stains.
6. Insects: wool is notoriously vulnerable to the clothes moth largae which first feed on the nap, and then the ground fibers of the cloth; although cleaning can kill moths and eggs, reinfestation can be prevented with paper or cellophane; one may also use popular moth deterrents, including cedar.

 

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FIBERS
1. Animal Fibers
Silk
1d. Types of Silk
A. Sources
1. Varieties of Wild Silk
a. antheraea pernyi: Chinese Tussah moth, although primarily cultivated, this species is hardy enough to live on its own should it escape captivity.
b. samia cynthia: Eri Silkmoth, typically cultivated but may live in the wild as is less domesticated than bombyx mori; fabric from this species is durable, but cannot be reeled and is thusly spun.
2. Cultivated Silk
a. bombyx mori: Silkworm, or Domesticated silkworm; typically grown on Mulberry trees due to their affinity for its leaves.
B. Types
1. Reeled: long fibers, slack twist, high luster
a. Thrown: single yarn made of several strands twisted together.
b. Organzine: ply yarn used when strength is required in warp, typically seen in upholstery, drapery and sheeting
c. Tram: ply yarn used when strength is required, higher luster because has slacker twist; typically used in filling yarns.
d. Douppion: two silkworms spin one cocoon together; typically seen in shantung, draperies or upholsteries.
e. Tussah: wild silk variety; rough and yellowish-brown fibers
2. Spun: less lustrous than reeled silk due in great part to the twisting required to keep smaller fibers in twist.
a. less tensile strength, less elasticity
b. linty, cottony feeling.
c. less expensive than reeled silk
3. Noil: dull, lifeless, rough; also known as silk noil or waste silk
a. primarily used in powder bags for artillery, drapery and upholstery
4. Weighted: although not actually a kind of silk yarn, weighted silk is different in all aspects.
a. metallic salts such as tin or iron used to weigh silk, tannin may also be used
b. not as durable because sunlight and perspiration cause deterioration of material; also cracks over time.
c. weighted silk must be marked as such and only with 5% variable in overall count.
1e. Characteristics of Silk
A. Physical
1. Durability: strongest natural fiber
a. weighted silks will eventually lose elasticity, quickly deteriorate from sunlight and perspiration, shrinks badly, loses shape, cracks in washing and cleaning.
b. Spun silk has lower tensile strength and may become fuzzy and rough over time.
c. Noil is inferior in all respects.
2. Comfort: warmer than rayon, cotton or linen, very absorptive and does not feel as damp as other natural fibers; cool in the summer and lightweight, retains its shape better than rayon and acetate, cotton or linen.
B. Value
1. Suitability: silk lends itself well to fashion, both due to its high luster as well as its versatility in hand; it can be soft a frilly, or hard and stiff; evening wear can be created from silk, just as silk may compliment an article of evening wear.
2. Beauty: no fabric is as luxurious in appearance or feel as natural silk; whereas wool and cotton represent a certain utility, silk represents luxury.
C. Care
1. Light: silk is not as resistant to light as cotton, weighted silk less so.
2. Mildew: although mildew is seldom found on silk, rot producing conditions will destroy it.
3. Heat: scorches at 300F, and yellows at 231F
4. Acids: if diluted, acids have less effect on silk than vegetable fibers, however, even mild acids such as citric and tartaric should be removed promptly to prevent damage.
5. Alkalies: ammonia, borax and soap will attack silk quickly and should be avoided; caustic soda or caustic potash will dissolve silk.
6. Bleaches: chlorine and hyperclorites should not be used as they will deteriorate the material; hydrogen peroxide and perborate bleaches may be used, but care must be taken.

 

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FIBERS
2. Vegetable Fibers
Cotton
2a. Types of Cotton
A. American
1. Pima: silky, long, lustrous and strong; primarily grown in Arizona, New Mexico, California, and Texas; can be used for sheer chiffon to heavy broadcloth.
2. Upland: strong and durable, grown all over the United States; used in sheeting, broadcloth, twills, drills, printed cloths and yarns for knitting; constitutes over 99% of all cotton produced in the US.
3. Deltapine: higher yields per acre, typically grown throughout the southern states from east to west; strong and durable.
B. Foreign
1. Egyptian: grown in the Nile Delta, longest fiber of all cottons, through mercerizing has silky luster, extremely soft feel and typically used in luxury shirting, sheeting, hosiery and knit goods.
2. Tanguis: Peruvian cotton which is rough, harsh, wiry and wooly feeling with a slight crimp; often combined in cotton/wool mixtures
3. Indian: Upland style cotton, strong and durable, grown in India and Pakistan
2b. Characteristics of Cotton
A. Physical
1. Comfort: naturally wicks moisture away from body and allows cool temperatures to reach skin, when napped, can provide ample heat; typically smooth and soft, may have markedly changed hand depending on any finishes applied.
2. Durability: naturally twisted to provide excellent durability, temporarily stronger when wet rendering fabric safe for modern washing machines, resists alkalis in most detergents preventing degradation of fabric.
3. Shape Retention: due to its natural rigidity, cotton regularly requires pressing and wrinkles easily, unless otherwise treated for crease/wrinkle resistance.
4. Resistance to Shrinkage: naturally shrinks considerably, however innovations in shrink control treatments on cotton clothing fabrics have reduced residual shrinkage to below 1%.
B. Value
1. Ease of Care: launders well, takes to light ironing well, high scorch temperature, does not degrade with perspiration, most often takes well to dry cleaning, certain finishes allow for wash, dry and wrinkle-free appearance.
2. Versatility: cotton cloth can be worn around the clock in business attire, house dress, sportswear, bathing suits, children’s clothing, formal wear, casual wear, military supplies, etc., likely one of the most versatile fabrics.
C. Care
1. Light: only if continuously exposed to light will it lose strength; curtain may appear perfectly new on one side, but falling apart on the other light exposed side.
2. Acids: strong mineral acids will quickly destroy the fibers, while diluted acids may affect cotton by weakening the fiber, but will not destroy it if cared for while still wet.
3. Alkalis: ammonia, borax and phosphate do not damage cotton, however, care should be taken in how cleaning is performed as high concentrations and high temperature will quickly destroy the fibers.
4. Mildew: untreated cotton has an affinity for rot and mildew under the right circumstances; care should be taken to thoroughly dry fabrics.

 

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FIBERS
2. Vegetable Fibers
Linen
2c. Sources of Linen
A. Two Major Sources of Flax Fibers
1. Belgium: produces the tallest, best grade of flax fiber around the world
2. Russia: produces the greatest acreage, largest producer in the world.
B. Two Major Sources of Linen Cloth
1. Belgium: primarily specialized in damask, draperies, table cloths; focused on unfinished goods for export
2. Ireland: primarily specialized in clothing, handkerchiefs, damasks; focused on finished goods for export
2d. Characteristics of Linen
A. Physical
1. Durability: in fiber alone, Linen is longer and stronger than cotton; as a fabric, the quality of workmanship, the intended use, and the growing/harvesting conditions may play a vital role in the fabrics actual durability.
2. Absorbency: extremely absorbent due to fiber having a hollow center; better in dish and bath towels, but may require laundering to reduce beetled finish; does not mold, dries quickly, reduces sound and light well
B. Value
1. Ease of Care: wrinkles frequently due to rigid nature, although not typically pressed often, should be ironed while damp; does not soil as quickly as cotton, hot water and soap should not affect fibers, however care should be taken not to starch linen heavily; dry cleaning is most often recommended but if washed, should be dried in the sun to maintain whiteness.
C. Care
1. Light: much more resistant to ultraviolet than man-made materials
2. Acids: strong mineral acids will quickly destroy the fibers, while diluted acids may affect linen by weakening the fiber, but will not destroy it if cared for while still wet.
3. Alkalis: ammonia, borax and phosphate do not damage linen, however, alkalis more readily attack linen fibers than they do cotton.

 

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FIBERS
2. Vegetable Fibers
Other Plant Fibers
2e. Others
A. Others
1. Ramie or rhea: sold as substitute for flax, grown in subtropical conditions with abundant rain
a. robust, resistant to mildew, more absorbent than linen, dry easily and dyes easily
b. not typically seen in clothing industry due to its low twisting and bending strength
c. most often seen in blends with wool and rayon for furnishings and rugs.
2. Hemp: very much like linen in terms of feel, however has wider canal in fibers, modern bleaching processes have helped reduce color in finished fabrics.
a. typically seen in cordage, webbing, canvas and gauze.
3. Sisal: “sisal hemp” derived from the inner white fibers of the Agave sisalana plant by process of decortication. The fibers are dried and bleached in the sun; primarily used in cordage, rope and binder twine.
a. weakened by salt water, not as much by fresh water.
b. Although originally not used by sailors and navies due to the lower quality, during WWII, when Manila supplies were cut off, sisal ropes had to be used and have remained in use since.
4. Jute: similar to linen although weaker and less durable
a. cannot be bleached and therefore never totally white
b. greatly affected by dampness which also reduces its durability, also weakened by sunlight and most alkali detergents
c. typically seen in burlap, cordage and binding; is not seen in clothing due to its weaknesses.
5. Coir: hard, reddish brown fiber derived from the outer shell of the coconut
a. Typically used for mattresses, but finer grades used for robe and cocoa matting.
b. Can also be made into a thread that is elastic, lightweight and waterproof, used in mats, bags, hats and slippers.
6. Paper: Made mainly from linen, cotton and hemp rags, or from straw, bamboo, jute and wood.
a. Although paper may be so treated as to present a good appearance as a textile fabric, it is not durable, comfortable or serviceable.
7. Kapok: a silky fiber, finer than cotton but not as adaptable to spinning; derived from the vegetable fiber of a plant primarily in Java, the West Indies, Central America, India, Africa, South Asia and Brazil. Not used in woven cloth.
a. Typically used in mattresses and pillows, especially by the seashore due to its tendency to dry quickly.
8. Grass, rush: Cured prairie grass and European Rush are bound together into a rope for weaving into grass rugs.
9. Straw: Straw fibers are obtained from stems, stalks, leaves and bark of natural plants.
a. Baku straw: Fiber of bari palm of Ceylon and Malabar Coast
b. Balibuntal straw: fiber of unopened palm leaf stems
c. Leghorn/Tuscan straw: from a kind of wheat grown in Tuscany
d. Milan straw: from Milan, Italy
e. Panama straw: Toquilla straw of Ecuador; Jippi-Jappa leaves.

 

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FIBERS
3. Mineral Fibers
Minerals
3a.Uses In Fabric
A. Primary
1. Asbestos: mineral fiber obtained from rocks primarily in Quebec and Russia. White, soft and silky, resists all liquids except strong acids.
a. Includes fireproof suits, protective clothing and gloves, safety curtains in theaters.
b. When bonded with aluminum, reflects heat.
B. Secondary
1. Foil: When in thin sheets, foil can be cut into strips and used as yarn for luxury fabrics.
a. Gold
b. Silver
c. Aluminum

 

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FIBERS
Synthetics
4. Man-Made Fibers
A. Derived from Cellulose (or, the cell walls of plants)
1. Rayon (purified cellulose): generic name coined in 1924 at the National Retail Dry Goods Association; made from wood pulp and cotton linters, the raw materials contain high level of cellulose. The raw materials are converted into a solution and extruded through a jet to harden.
a. after treating the cellulose chemically, rayon fibers are modified to create properties included improved strength, wrinkle recovery, crimping for wool like appearance, dimensional stability.
b. versatile, highly absorbent, fair abrasion resistance, blends well, low cost
2. Acetate (cellulose acetate): made from wood and sometimes additional cotton linters, acetate fibers are derived from cellulose and acetyl. Requires different care than rayon as is a vegetable and chemical fiber, as opposed to rayon which is just vegetable.
a. trade names include Acele, Estron, Celanese
b. can be modified with steam and alkaline bath to create sunlight fast fibers.
c. excellent hand, good draping ability, moth and mildew resistant, does not pill, fair wrinkle resistance and poor crease retention, limited strength.
3. Triacetate (modified acetate with higher cellulose content): thermoplastic containing three acetate compounds. More resistant to heat than regular acetate fibers.
B. Chemically derived
1. Nylon (polyamide): derived from petroleum, chemically combined with air and water
a. strength and elasticity, abrasion resistance, stability in repeated launderings, fair hand
2. Acrylic (resin): derived from coal, air, water, petroleum and limestone
a. high bulk, warmth and dimensional stability, wool-like hand, pressed crease retention, fair strength, minimum care required.
3. Modacrylic (modified acrylic): 35-85% acrylonitrile materials.
a. trademarked names include Elura, Verel
b. fire, chemical and mildew resistant, weak fabric, low melting point, fair abrasion resistance.
4. Polyester (resin): coal, air, water and petroleum; fiber-forming substance made from a chemical combination of ethylene glycol and terepthalic acid.
a. trademark names include Dacron, Kodel, Fortrel, Trevira, Spectran, Avlin and Vycron.
b. Resilient, wrinkle resistant, pressed crease retention, quick drying, good strength, resistant to abrasion, hand is fair to good, iron safe at moderate temperatures, stable in repeated launderings.
5. Saran (vinylidene chloride), Vinyon (vinyl chloride), Nytril (vinylidene dinitrile), Vinal (polyvinyl alcohol): Vinyl derivatives or various types used in manufactured fibers.
a. although having achieved success abroad, the materials have seen little success in America.
6. Olefin (propylene gas and ethylene gas): paraffin based fibers polyethylene and polypropylene; does not absorb moisture and therefore highly stain resistant.
a. trademarked names include Herulon, Marvess
b. lightweight, excellent chemical resistance, good abrasion resistance, low melting point, fair hand, good strength and low cost.
7. Spandex (polyurethane): polyurethane plastic resin
a. trademark name includes Lycra
8. Anidex (elastomeric acrylate): elastic fiber that stretches and recovers; allied closely to acrylic fibers and plastics.
9. Aramid (elastomeric aromatic polyamide): greatest strength of all fibers, rigid, high heath resistant.
a. Nomex: trademarked aramid used primarily by firefighters, race car drivers, military forces and industrial workers.
b. Kevlar: Primarily used for tire reinforcement, also used to reinforce aircraft, high pressure vessels, sporting goods, boat hulls, cables, ropes.
α. Also used for police vests as protective armor from bullets and knives.
10. Novoloid (phenolic): noncellulosic fiber made from phenol, a chemical acidic compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; highly flame resistant; lightweight, resilient and unaffected by many acids.
a. trademarked name includes Kynol.
C. Derived from non-fibrous, natural sources
1. Rubber: synthetic or natural
2. Glass: made from melted glass marbles, the molten glass is extruded through a nozzle in forming nylon fibers; typically fireproof.
a. trademarked name includes Fiberglas
3. Metallic: typically composed of metal, metal-coated plastic, or metal core-wrapped
a. trademarked name includes Lurex
4. Azlon: manufactured fiber produced from proteins found in casein, peanuts, soy beans and corn kernels. Not produced in the United States.

 

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YARNS
Yarns
5. Weaving: used for warp, or lengthwise direction of cloth, are generally stronger, tighter twist, smoother and more even.
6. Knitting: more slackly twisted than yarns for weaving
A. Hand: typically multi-ply
1. Baby yarns: yarns of 100% wool or wool/rayon in light or medium weight, used for infant garments.
2. Dress yarns: plain or novelty yarns in all-wool, blends or mixtures of cotton/rayon.
3. Fingering yarns: two- or three-ply, light and medium weight, smooth and even diameter for children’s and other apparel.
4. Germantown: soft wool, medium weight for women’s and children’s sweaters and blankets.
5. Shetland Floss: soft, lightweight, fluffy yarn for infants’ and children’s sweaters.
6. Sock yarns: Especially spun wool or nylon yarn for knitting socks.
7. Worsted (knitting only): soft, well-twisted, heavy wool yarn for sweaters, very strong and durable.
8. Zephyr yarns: very fine, soft, 100% wool for lightweight garments
7. Size of Yarns
A. Cotton, Wool, Spun: uses “count” to distinguish weight and fineness
1. Cotton/Spun: Base is 840 yards of yarn to the pound. 840 yards is #1; 8,400 yards is #10. 84,000 yards is #100 count, 420,000 yards is #500 count.
2. Wool: like cotton, uses count.
a. Woolen yarns: Base is 1,600 yards of yarn to the pound. 1,600 yards is #1 count, a very coarse yarn. 16,000 yards is #10 count, 160,000 yards is #100 count.
b. Worsted yarns: Base is 560 yards of yarn to the pound. 560 yards is #1 count; 5,600 yards is #10 count, 22,400 yards is #40 count, 44,800 yards is #80 count, 56,000 yards is #100 count.
B. Linen: uses “lea” to distinguish weight and fineness
1. Linen: Base is 300 yards of yarn to the pound.
C. Silk: uses “denier” to distinguish weight and fineness
1. Silk: Base is grams/9,000m of yarn. 9,000 meters = 9,842.4 yards. If 150g of silk is at 9,000m, it measures 150 denier. If 75g of silk is at 9,000m, it measures 75 denier.
8. Basic Weaves
A. Primary
1. Plain: sometimes called cotton, taffeta or tabby weave; similar in appearance to a checkerboard, the filling is passed over one warp yarn and under the next once across, and on the second pass, filling passes over the warp yarns it went under and under the warps it went over.
a. typically one of the strongest weaves, simple designs means inexpensive weave, easily cleaned and drapes well.
b. variations include ribbed, basket weaves; size of yarns, number of warps, combination of colors, combination of raw materials, degrees of twist.
e. some plain-weave fabrics include: cottons: gingham, batiste, chambray, muslin, cambric, organdy, shantung, canvas, flannelette, linens: handkerchief linen, dress linen, art linen, cambric, man-made: organdy, shirting, georgette, seersucker, chiffon, silks: organza chiffon, silk shirting, broadcloth, wools: homespun, batiste, some tweeds
2. Twill: most durable of all weaves, the filling yarns are interlaced with the warps to form diagonal ridges across the fabric; the diagonals, called wales, may run from upper left to lower right, from upper right to lower left, or both ways in the same cloth.
a. although they don’t show dirtying as quickly, they’re harder to clean.
b. common variations include: herringbone, diamond patterns as seen in worsted cheviots, whipcord.
c. some twill fabrics include: cotton: denim, ticking, drill cloth, flannel, gabardine, khaki, serge, linens: towel and table drills, wools: worsted cheviot, serge, gabardine, flannel, tweed, broadcloth, sharkskin, worsted
3. Satin: using the principle of twill, weaves include the semblance of a broken diagonal, but interlacing of the warp and filling are placed far apart to avoid forming wales.
a. Satin: more warps the fillings on the right side.
b. Sateen: more fillings than warps on the right side.
c. produces smooth, lustrous fabric; sheds dirt well but may appear greasy over time.
4. Difference between suitability of plain, twill and satin
a. plain weave is most serviceable, easy to dry clean, launders well, drapes well, comfortable and inexpensive; however, loose weaves shrink easily; more appropriate for fabrics requiring frequent laundering.
b. twill weave keeps press and shape well when used for suiting, does not show dirtying as easily but is harder to clean, durable and more suitable for wools; does not launder as easily.
c. satin weave are impractical for daily wear due to snagging and greasy appearance over time, also tends to make a larger figure appear even larger; typically used to impart beauty and style.
B. Secondary
1. Pile: soft, clipped yarns on the front side of the fabric; velvet, velour and plush fabrics, as well as carpets and rugs, corduroy, velveteen, chenille.
a. best worn in fall and winter due to heat retention.
b. although thought to make the wearer appear stout, pile cut correctly is slenderizing and becoming of all ages; appropriate for afternoon and evening wear
c. must steam pile in order to remove creases, and requires dry cleaning; should not get velvet or velveteen wet if at all possible.
d. some pile fabrics include: cotton: velveteen, velour, terry cloth, corduroy, chenille, rayon: chenille, transparent velvet, silk: plush, velvet velour, chenille, wool: velour, corduroy, various rugs
2. Jacquard: most elaborate and intricate designs created on special “punch card” loom which require many varieties of yarns for a single finished product; most hand written point-paper patterns have been traded for computer driven electronic machines.
a. some Jacquard fabrics include: cotton: damask, tapestry, linen: damask, rayon: damask, brocade, silk: damask, brocade, tapestry, wool: damask, tapestry.
3. Dobby: attachment to a loom consisting of a chain of narrow strips of wood with pegs inserted in each indicating the pattern; simple, small geometrical figures in which the repeat in design appears often.
a. typically seen in bird’s-eye, nail-head and sharkskin suiting, woven madras shirts, men’s ties, etc.
4. Leno: lacelike effects, seen in dishcloths, curtains and some thermal blankets, are made with a leno attachment; different from surgical gauze, as that is plain weave.
a. mosquito netting uses the leno attachment

 

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FINSHES
Finishes
9. Pre- and post- finishes
A. Preparatory Finishes
1. Bleaching: for obvious purpose of making fabric white; typically used throughout clothing industry prior to dying of fabrics including cotton, linen, wool, etc.
2. Scouring: removes any sizing, dirt, oils or other substances that may adhere to fibers in processing yarns
3. Degumming: before silk can be dyed or other finishes applied, it must be boiled in mild soap solution followed by rinsing and drying.
4. Mercerization: cotton is held in tension while being treated in strong solution of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) at a temperature of 70F-80F
a. improves luster, strength and affinity to dye.
5. Shearing: after a nap is raised, it’s sheared to make the surface smooth and uniform; also used to even a pile, or to cut off defects.
6. Singeing: smooth-surfaced cloths are quickly passed over heated plates or gas flames to remove projecting fibers.
7. Brushing: removes short ends of fibers by brushing smooth-surfaced fabrics with rollers covered in bristles; also removes any left over fabrics from shearing.
8. Beetling: Linen and cotton fabrics are pounded with little hammers to give a glossy, hard, leathering feeling.
9. Decating: develops luster using heat and pressure in various fabrics including silks, rayons, wools and blends; also softens the hand, reduces shine, delays appearance of breaks and cracks.
10. Tentering: evens fabric width and weave, also aides in drying process
11. Moiering: applying a “watered” effect, which may hold fast, or, in rayons, a chemical treatment is applied to make permanent.
12. Napping: raising short fibers of a cloth to the surface by means of a revolving cylinder with metallic points.
13. Weighting: weighting substance is combined with dye to increase body in an already flimsy structure.
a. sometimes used in woolens when manufactures steam fibers of wool into the back of a fabric to create a more compact cloth; termed flocking.
B. Nonpermanent Finishes: many finishes are not permanent and will wash out, or wear out within a short time. Often, these finishes can be recreated by the consumer.
1. Creping: passing cloth through hot rollers in presence of steam, rollers have indentations in order to create waves and puckers
2. Embossing: fabric passed through steaming rollers which imprint a design on the fabric; less expensive than a woven in design
a. heat-setting the fabric may create a semi-permanent embossing in cotton and rayon.
3. Sizing or Dressing: increases weight, crispness and luster by adding glue, wax, casein or clay to linens, rayons, and cottons.
4. Calendering: presses fabric through two hollow, heated rollers for purpose of eliminating wrinkles; can also impart luster or high polish if chemicals applied
5. Pressing: similar to calendering, but applies to wool, worsteds, rayons and silks; pressing fabric between electrically heated metal plates that steam and press the fabric; may also dampen fabric prior to process, such as in wool.
C. Permanent or Durable Press: chemical treatment applied to fabric to impart a permanent shape, pleat, pressed crease, wrinkle resistance, machine washability and dryability, smooth seams, increased durability
1. Varieties of permanent or durable press include
a. Cotton: bleaching, glazing, colorfast, shrinkage control, crease resistant, wash-and-wear, durable press
b. Linen: bleaching, beetling, shrinkage control, colorfast, crease resistant
c. Rayon: shrinkage control, crease resistant, durable press
d. Silk: bleaching
e. Wool: napping, moth repellent, shrinkage control, wash-and- wear, durable press
f. Nylon: stiffening, non-slip, durable press, heat fast
g. Polyester: wrinkle resistant, shape retention, heat fast, durable press
h. Acrylics: crease resistant, permanent pleating, water repellent, heat fast, durable press
2. Methods of adding permanent or durable press
a. fabric treated with hot plastic resin which is fixed to the fiber in a way that can’t even be seen microscopically;
b. treated with starch, glue, paraffin or shellac and run through hot friction rollers to give fabric a high gloss.
α. trade name for such a finish is Everglaze
D. Functional or Special Finishes: finishes applied to a fabric to make it better suited for a specific purpose
1. Abrasion resistance: degree to which a fabric can sustain repeated rubbing, chafing or friction; typically a thermoplastic resin (such as polyester or acrylic) is loaded into the fibers of cotton, linen or wool.
2. Absorbency: treatment with ammonium compounds causes cottons, linens and rayons to absorb water more readily.
3. Air Conditioning: short fibers are chemically sealed into fabric making it more porous, and thereby increasing ventilation.
4. Antibacterial finishes: germicides can be applied to fabrics in an odorless, colorless form, typically not washing out for over 40-50 was cycles; seen in socks, shirts.
5. Antistatic: chemical treatment applied to man-made fabrics and blends in order eliminate static electricity; seen in everything from women’s nylons and slips, to men’s trousers and coats.
6. Crease resistance: synthetic resins are used to give a fabric resiliency; the cloth is immersed in resin which permeates the fibers.
7. Flammability: current laws and regulations now require particularly flammable articles and fabrics to be treated with flame retardant compounds.
8. Starchless finish: cottons and linens are treated with resin to permanently create a crisp appearance even after laundering.

 

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LAUNDERING
Laundering
10. Tips on Care
A. Laundering
1. Combinations: below combinations wash and dry well together.
a. White and colorfast sheets, pillowcases, table linens, hand towels, men’s shirts, white gloves and pajamas
b. Heavy bath towels and mats, underwear, light colored shirts and socks (can be combined with above to fill load).
c. Lightweight colored cottons, dresses, aprons, shirts
d. Sheer white and colorfast cottons, organdy, batiste
e. Acrylics, acetates, nylons and other man-made fibers, silk
f. Extra-soiled, heavier and darker cotton pants, overalls, play clothes, socks
g. wash alone: shag rugs, pillows, quilts, blankets, slip covers, draperies, curtains.
2. General Laundering: the following is in no way acceptable for specific articles of clothing which may have unique requirements, or which may be fragile. Take great care in researching your cleaning before using any substances on an article.
a. Cottons: washable in hot water with a heavy-duty detergent; can be pressed with a hot iron.
b. Linen: washable in hot water with a heavy-duty detergent, heavy starching should be avoided as it tends to break the fibers when ironed
c. Silks: should be dry cleaned unless otherwise noted; if washable, should be done by hand in lukewarm water with mild suds; remove excess water by rolling article in a towel; can iron article while damp on backside, although wrinkles are best removed by placing damp cotton cloth over fabric and steaming; perspiration weakens the fabric so soiled silks should be cleaned at once.
d. Wools: washable in warm water, not hot, with mild neutral soap, mild synthetic detergent or cold water soap like Woolite; use several soapy waters; rinse at the same temperature but do not remove all soap as this prevents felting; dry slowly away from heat; liquid or powder soaps that make suds in cold water are good for hand laundering; wools can be ironed, preferably on the back side, with a steam iron and damp cloth; to retard shine, you may place two pieces of cheesecloth may be placed on front of garment while back is being ironed.
e. Rayons: for items labeled “washable”, use mild, lukewarm suds, squeeze gently through the fabric and rinse in lukewarm water, do not wring or twist the fabric, smooth or shake out artile and place on plastic hanger to dry; although some fabrics containing rayon can be bleached, many rayon finishes are sensitive to chlorine; press fabric with moderate heat iron on back side, if the front must be pressed, one should use a cloth between iron and fabric.
f. Acetate and Triacetate: if labeled washable, hand wash in warm water with mild soap, garment should never be twisted or wrung, colored items should not be soaked; most of these articles should be dry cleaned and pressed by a professional.
g. Nylons: machine wash and tumble dry at low temperature, articles should be removed immediately from dryer, warm iron if necessary.
h. Polyesters: most fabrics can be machine washed and dried, warm water plus fabric softener added to final rinse cycle is recommended; dry at low temperature, and articles should be removed immediately; any pressing needed should be with a warm iron, or medium high if cotton blend.
i. Acrylics and Modacrylics: for washable items, machine wash in warm water and add fabric softener during the final rinse cycle; dry at low temperature and articles removed as soon as tumbling stops, fabrics may be ironed on low setting, but never hot.
j. Olefins: may be machine washed in lukewarm water with a fabric softener added to final cycle, very low heat should be used to dry and all articles should be removed promptly; gas dryers and those at Laundromats should be avoided; 100% olefin articles should never be ironed.
B. Refreshing and storage
1. Refreshing
a. brush wool fabrics frequently; neckbands, collars and portions under the arm require special attention as wool absorbs oil from the skin and, when mixed with dirt, creates unsightly grease spots; wool garments should be aired frequently and in the sun if possibly.
b. Pile fabrics like velvet should not be brushed when wet; when dry, they should be brushed lightly against the pile and then brushed several times in the direction of the pile.
c. Cotton, linen and other fabrics which wrinkle easily may be steamed and pressed without necessarily washing after every use.
2. Storage
a. ensure garments have good ventilation and are not being crushed by nearby articles.
b. if storing wools and fur felts, mothballs or naptha products should be included.
c. outergarments are typically hung on hangers, while knitwear, underclothing and draperies should be stored flat in drawers, chests or closet shelves, preferably in the dark since light deteriorates some materials.
d. new linen should first be washed and dried, and all linen should be rolled in colorfast blue paper to absorb any dampness to avoid mildew.
C. Dry Cleaning
1. Professional
a. unless otherwise noted, any garment that may be laundered may be dry cleaned, but most dry-clean-only garments may not necessarily be laundered
b. water soluble stains should be removed prior to treatment and dry cleaning my not necessarily remove them when finished.
c. dry cleaners typically use perchlorethylene, a manufactured chlorinated hydrocarbon; refined petroleum solvents are used sometimes where flammable solvents are permitted; Valclene is an example of a fluorocarbon used which is related to Freon.
2. Stain removal
a. all chemical stains (perfumes, dried paints, lipstick, inks, polishes) should be removed by a professional dry cleaner
b. rings form easily on smooth, light colored fabrics; while solvent-formed rings can be removed by dry cleaning, water-rings must be “feathered” out with a steam gun.
3. Methods
a. Hard finished woolens and worsteds, woven or knitted dresses or sportswear use perchlorethylene for 15 minutes, with 70% humidity, dried in tumbler at 155F and pressed in padded utility press.
b. All Soft finished woolens and knits use perchlorethylene for 5 minutes, with 60% humidity or less, dried in tumbler at 135F, and finished with steamer, hot head or drapery press.
c. Fragile garments use perchlorethylene for 5 minutes, with 60% humidity or less, tumbled in a net bag or hung in an air dryer at 135F, and finished with a padded utility press.
d. Rainwear, work clothes, or heavily soiled articles use perchlorethylene for 15 minutes, with 70-75% humidity, tumbled dry at 155F and finished with hot head press.
D. Common Products Used
1. Bleaches: a fabric that yellowed due to aging or has grayed from soap film due to incorrect washing requires bleaching; note bleach does not remove soiling and its whitening power is limited.
a. liquid bleach is known as chlorine bleach which is the strongest, powder bleaches are made from sodium perborate; a third bleach exists known as oxygen bleaches.
b. chlorine bleaches can be used on white and colorfast cotton and linens, man-made fabrics and permanent press articles; chlorine bleaches should not be used on wool, silk, mohair and most some of spandex, or any flame-retardant treated cottons.
c. one should never put chlorine or powder bleach directly on clothing, instead it should be diluted in water previous to adding the articles for washing.
2. Disinfectants: used for cloth diapers and articles from a sickroom.
a. Borateem is chlorine-free powder bleach which is also color-safe
b. Pine oil, typically found in name brand Pine-Sol, should be used only on white or colorfast articles.
3. Starches: used to impart a stiffer, crisper and shinier.
a. vegetable starch, made from white vegetables and corn mixture, attaches itself to the pores of the fibers making the surface smooth thereby preventing soil from collecting; when soil does collect, it is easily removed with regular laundering.
α. dry starch must first be cooked and mixed with water, whereas liquid starches are precooked but must also be added to water; aerosol starches may be sprayed directly onto a garment.
b. plastic starch is made from resins and impregnates the fibers rather than just covering the surface, therefore it is more permanent and can withstand multiple launderings; not typically available anymore.
4. Fabric Softeners: these are intended to makes washable fabrics softer, fluffier and less likely to wrinkle; they also cut down on static in man-made materials.
11. Stain Removal
A. Impromptu
1. Non-greasy, generally: cool water is usually best for non-greasy stains or dye stains from colored papers.
2. Fresh grease, generally: use absorbent powder like talcum or cornstarch, be careful on dark articles as the white powder may “stain” and require further care.
B. By Type of Stain
1. Blood: soak in warm water and an enzyme presoak product, launder as usual.
2. Chewing Gum: Put ice on gum to harden it, take gum off fabric with dull knife, place fabric face down on paper towels and sponge with dry cleaning solvent, launder.
3. Coffee or Tea: soak in enzyme presoak or oxygen bleach, use hot water, then wash, if stain remains use chlorine bleach if safe for fabric.
4. Cosmetics: Dampen stain, rub with bar soap, rinse and wash
5. Deodorants: rub with liquid detergent directly to light stain; if heavy stain, place garment face down on papers towels and sponge with dry cleaning solvent, rinse. Rub with liquid detergent and rinse; launder in hottest water safe for fabric.
6. Grass: soak in enzyme presoak product and wash; if still stained, use chlorine bleach if safe for fabric.
7. Grease stains: including car grease or oil, butter, lard, salad dressing, cooking oils, etc; place stain face down on paper towels and apply dry cleaning solvent on back side of stain, brush from center of stain to outer edges with clean white cloth, dampen stain with water and rub with bar soap or liquid detergent, rinse and launder.
8. Ink, ballpoint: place stain face down on paper towels, sponge back of stain with dry cleaning solvent; if ink still remains, apply bar soap, rinse well and wash.
9. Lipstick: place stain face down on paper towels, sponge back of stain with dry cleaning solvent, move fabric to clean area of towel frequently to take out more of the color; dampen stain with water and rub with bar soap, rinse and wash.
10. Mildew: Wash with detergent and bleach if safe for fabric, if not, soak in oxygen bleach, then wash.
11. Milk, cream, ice cream: soak in warm water with an enzyme presoak product, wash as usual.
12. Paint, water based: Rinse fabrics in warm water while stains are still wet, then launder. Once pain is dried, it cannot be removed.
13. Oil based paint, varnish: use the appropriate thinning agent, or turpentine, rinse and rub with bar soap, rinse and wash.
14. Sweat, perspiration: Dampen stain and rub with bar soap, soak in an enzyme presoak product, launder in hot water and chlorine bleach if safe for fabric; if the color of the fabric has already changed, use ammonia for fresh stains and vinegar for oil, rinse and launder in hottest water safe for color.
15. Shoe Polish: sponge with liquid detergent followed by diluted rubbing alcohol.
16. Urine, vomit, mucous: Soak in an enzyme presoak, launder using a chlorine bleach if safe, or oxygen bleach if otherwise.
17. Wine, soft drinks: soak in an enzyme presoak, bleach using hottest water possible for fabric; if stain remains, launder again using chlorine bleach if safe.

 

[Undertow]

Generic Names and some Trademark Counterparts :
1. Acetate : Acele, Ariloft, Avicolor, Celacloud, Celanese, Celaperm, Chromspun, Estron, Loftura.
2. Acrylic: Acrilan, Creslan, Nandel, Orlon, Zefran
3. Modacrylic: Acrilan, Elura, Orlon, Sef, Verel, Dynel
4. Nylon: Actionwear, Anso, Antron, Astroturf, Ayrlyn, Beaunit, Blue “C”, Bodyfree, Cadon, Cantrece, Caprolan, Captiva, Cedilla, Celanese, Cordura, Crepeset, Cumuloft, Enka, Enkaloft, Enkalure, Enkasheer, Guaranteeth, Monvelle, Multisheer, Shareen, Stria, Stryton, SuperBulk, Tango, Twix, Ultron, Variline, Zefran
5. Olefin: Herculon, Marvess
6. Polyester: Avlin, Dacron, Encron, Esterweld, Fortrel, GoldenTouch, Kodel, Quintess, Spectran, Strialine, Textura, Trevira, Vycron
7. Rayon: Avicolor, Aviloc, Avril, Beau-Grip, Briglo, Coloray, Encel, Englo, Enkrome, Fibro, Jetspun, Kolorbon, Skyloft, Softglo, SuperWhite, Suprenka, Xena, Zantrel



Bibliography

Wingate, Isabel B. Textile Fabrics and Their Selection, 7th ed, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1976

Hart, Stanley H. and Edward W. France ed. Wool: The Raw Materials of the Woolen and Worsted Industries, Philadelphia, Philadelphia Textile School, 1917

Schoenian, Susan. “Real Men Wear Wool” Sheep 101 Sept. 2004

Simpson, W.S. and G.H. Crawshaw, eds. Wool: Science and Technology, Boca Raton, CRC Press, 2002

D’Souza, Noemia. Fabric Care, Naveen Shahdara, Delhi, New Age International 1998

Note: I was assisted in great part by the first title listed, Textile Fabrics and Their Selection. I’d also like to note that I was assisted by my mother and father – both of whom are greatly familiar with textiles.

 

[Undertow]

Here's to entirely too much time working on this! Finally, I can get back to writing fiction.

:cheers1:

 

[VitaminG]

wow, that's quite a bit of work! Well done. :eusa_clap